Material Science

 Sometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of materials science and engineering into materials science and materials engineering subdisciplines. Strictly speaking, “materials science” involves investigating the relationships that exist between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, “materials engineering” is, on the basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material to produce a predetermined set of properties.

From a functional perspective, the role of a materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engineer is called upon to create new products or systems using existing materials, and/or to develop techniques for processing materials. Most graduates in materials programs are trained to be both materials scientists and materials engineers.

“Structure” is at this point a nebulous term that deserves some explanation. In brief, the structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components. Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another.

The next larger structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, is termed “microscopic,” meaning that which is subject to direct observationusing some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed withthe naked eye are termed “macroscopic.”

The notion of “property” deserves elaboration. While in service use, all mate-rials are exposed to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example, a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation, or a polished metal surface will reflect light. A property is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific imposed stimulus. Generally, definitions of proper-ties are made independent of material shape and size.

Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative .For each there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different responses.

Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples include elastic modulus and strength. For electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The thermal behavior of solids can be represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal conductivity. Magnetic properties demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic field. For optical properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation; index of refraction and reflectivity are representative optical properties.

 Finally, deteriorative characteristics relate to the chemical reactivity of materials.The chapters that follow discuss properties that fall within each of these six classifications. In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved in the science and engineering of materials—namely, “processing” and“performance.”With regard to the relationships of these four components, the structure of a material will depend on how it is processed. Furthermore, a material’s performance will be a function of its properties.

Why do we study material science?

Why do we study materials? Many an applied scientist or engineer, whether mechanical, civil, chemical, or electrical, will at one time or another be exposed to a design problem involving materials. Examples might include a transmission gear,the superstructure for a building, an oil refinery component, or an integrated circuit chip. Of course, materials scientists and engineers are specialists who are totally involved in the investigation and design of materials.

Many times, a materials problem is one of selecting the right material from the many thousands that are available. There are several criteria on which the final

decision is normally based. First of all, the in-service conditions must be characterized, for these will dictate the properties required of the material. On only rare occasions does a material possess the maximum or ideal combination of properties.

Thus, it may be necessary to trade off one characteristic for another. The classic example involves strength and ductility; normally, a material having a high strength will have only a limited ductility. In such cases a reasonable compromise between two or more properties may be necessary.

A second selection consideration is any deterioration of material properties that may occur during service operation. For example, significant reductions in mechanical strength may result from exposure to elevated temperatures or corrosive environments. Finally, probably the overriding consideration is that of economics: What will the finished product cost? A material may be found that has the ideal set of properties but is prohibitively expensive. Here again, some compromise is inevitable.

The cost of a finished piece also includes any expense incurred during fabrication to produce the desired shape.

The more familiar an engineer or scientist is with the various characteristics and structure–property relationships, as well as processing techniques of materials, the more proficient and confident he or she will be to make judicious materials

choices based on these criteria.

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